5’cap: 7-methyl guanosine added to the start of the primary transcript to protect it from digestion. Also binds it to the ribosome to start translation
A (acceptor) site: site in the ribosome where tRNA brings in an amino acid
Activation energy: the difference between the energy level of the transition state and the potential energy of reacting molecules
Active site: the location where the substrate binds to an enzyme
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP): a nucleotide derivative that acts as the primary energy-transferring molecule in living organisms
Allosteric inhibitor: a substance that binds to an allosteric site on an enzyme and stabilizes the inactive form of the enzyme
Allosteric sites: receptor sites, some distance from the active site of certain enzymes, that bind substances that may inhibit or stimulate an enzyme’s activity
Amino acid: The monomer subunit of a polypeptide chain. It is composed of a carboxylic acid, an amino group and a side group that differentiates it from other amino acids.
Aminoacyl-tRNA: a tRNA molecule with its corresponding amino acid attached to its acceptor site at the 3’
end
Anabolic reactions: reactions that produce large molecules from smaller subunit
Anaerobe: an organisms that does not require oxygen as its final electron acceptor
Anaerobic respiration: a process by which organisms produce energy in the absence of oxygen
Anticodon: group of three complementary bases on tRNA that recognizes and pairs with a codon on the mRNA
Antiparallel: the directionality of the two strands in a DNA molecule; the strands run in opposite directions, with each end of a DNA molecule containing the 3’ end of one strand and the 5’(5 prime) end of the other strand
β- galactosidase: the enzyme responsible for the breakdown of lactose into its component sugars, glucose and galactose
Calvin cycle: a light dependent set of reactions used by photosynthetic organisms to fix CO2 and make sugars
Carrying capacity: the maximum number of organisms that can be sustained by available resources over a given period of time
Chargaff’s rule: in DNA, the percent composition of adenine is the same as thymine, and the percent composition of cytosine is the same as guanine
Chemiosmosis: a process for synthesizing ATP using the energy of an electrochemical gradient and the ATP synthase enzyme
Chloroplast: a plastid that contains chlorophyll and in which photosynthesis takes place
Chlorophyll: a green pigment found in plants that absorbs light
Clumped dispersion: the pattern in which individuals in a population are more concentrated in certain parts of a habitat
Coding strand: strand that is not used for transcription and is identical to mRNA. It uses Uracil
instead of Thymine
Codon: a sequence of 3 bases in DNA or complementary mRNA that serves as a code for a particular amino acid
Coenzymes: organic nonprotein cofactors that are needed for some enzymes to function
Commensalism: a symbiotic relationship in which one organism benefits and the other organism is unaffected
Community: all populations in a given ecosystem at a given time
Complementary base pairing: in DNA, the interaction of bases of nucleotides on opposite strands through the formation of hydrogen bonds
Corepressor: a molecule (usually the product of an operon) that binds to a repressor to activate it
Cristae: the folds of the inner mitochondrial membrane
Dark reactions: see Calvin Cycle
Deletion: the elimination of a base pair or group of base pairs from a DNA sequence
Demographic transition model: a four-stage model that describes the relationship between economic development and changes in population patterns
Demography: the study of the growth rate, age structure, and other characteristics of human populations
Deoxyribose sugar: sugar molecule containing five carbons that has lost the - OH (hydroxyl group) on its 2’ (2 prime) carbon
DNA digest: cutting of the DNA strand
DNA ligase: an enzyme that catalyses the joining of Okazaki fragments
DNA polymerase I: an enzyme that removes RNA primer and fills gaps between Okazaki fragments on the lagging strand with DNA nucleotides; proofreads newly synthesized DNA
DNA polymerase II: an enzyme that proofreads newly synthesized DNA
DNA polymerase III: an enzyme that adds nucleotides to the 3’ (3 prime) end of a growing polynucleotide strand
DNA replication: the process of producing two identical DNA molecules from an original, parent DNA molecule
Ecological niche: an organism’s biological characteristics, including use of and interaction with abiotic and biotic resources in its environment
Electrochemical gradient: a concentration gradient created by pumping ions into a space surrounded by a membrane that is impermeable to the ions
Electron transport chain: a series of membrane- associated protein complexes and cytochromes that transfer energy to an electrochemical gradient by pumping H+ ions into an intermembrane space
Endergonic reaction: a chemical reaction in which the energy of the products is more than the energy of the reactants; chemists call it an endothermic reaction
Energy: the ability to do work
Entropy: a measure of the randomness or disorder in a collection of objects or energy; symbolized by S
Enzyme–substrate complex: an enzyme with its substrate attached to the active site
Ethanol fermentation: a form of fermentation occurring in yeast in which NADH passes its hydrogen atoms to acetaldehyde, generating carbon dioxide, ethanol, and NAD+
Eukaryotic cells: cells possessing a cell nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles
Exergonic reaction: a chemical reaction in which the energy of the products is less than the energy of the reactants; chemists call it an exothermic reaction
Exons: segments of DNA that code for part of a specific protein
Exponential growth: a pattern of population growth where organisms reproduce continuously at a constant rate
Fermentation: a process in which the hydrogen atoms of NADH are transferred to organic compounds other than an electron transport chain
Frameshift mutation: a mutation that causes the reading frame of codons to change, usually resulting in dfferent amino acids being incorporated into the polypeptide
Gene regulation: the turning on or off of specific genes depending on the requirements of an organism
Genes: a sequence of nucleotides in DNA that performs a specific function such as coding for a particular protein
Geometric growth: a pattern of population growth where organisms reproduce at fixed intervals at a constant rate
Glycosyl bond: a bond between a sugar and another organic molecule by way of an intervening nitrogen or oxygen atom
Habitat: the place where an organism or species normally lives
Helicase: a group of enzymes that aid in the unwinding of DNA
Housekeeping genes: genes that are switched on all the time because they are needed for life
functions vital to an organism
Hydrolysis reaction: a catabolic reaction in which a water molecule is used to break a covalent bond holding subunits together
Induced mutations: mutations caused by a chemical agent or radiation
Inducer: a molecule that binds to a repressor protein and causes a change in conformation, resulting in the repressor protein falling off the operator
Insertion: the placement of an extra nucleotide in a DNA sequence
Intermembrance space: the fluid-filled space between the inner and outer mitochondrial membranes
Introns: non coding regions of a gene
Inversion: the reversal of a segment of DNA within a chromosome
Kinetic energy: energy possessed by moving objects
Krebs Cycle: a cyclic series of reactions that transfers energy from organic molecules to ATP, NADH, and FADH2 and removes carbon atoms as carbon dioxide
Lac operon: a cluster of genes under the control of one promoter and one operator; the genes
collectively code for the enzymes and proteins required for a bacterial cell to use lactose as a
nutrient
Lacl protein: a repressor protein that binds to the lac operon operator; preventing RNA polymerase from transcribing the lac operon genes
Lactate (lactic acid) fermentation: a form of fermentation occurring in animal cells in which NADH transfers its hydrogen atoms to pyruvate, regenerating NAD+ and lactate
Lactose: a disaccharide that consists of the sugars glucose and galactose messenger RNA (mRNA): The end product of transcription of a gene. mRNA then gets translated into a protein by the ribosomes
Light Reactions: the first stage of photosynthesis in which energy from light is used to make ATP
Logistic growth: a model of population growth describing growth that levels off as the size of the population approaches its carrying capacity
Mark–recapture method: sampling technique for estimating population size and density by comparing the proportion of marked and unmarked animals captured in a given area; sometimes called capture–recapture
Matrix: the fluid that fills the interior space of the mitochondrion
Metabolism: the sum of all anabolic and catabolic processes in a cell or organism
Mismatch repair: a mechanism for repairing errors made during DNA replication, whereby a group of proteins recognize mispaired nucleotide on the newly synthesized strand and replace it with a correctly paired nucleotide
Mitochondria: eukaryotic cell organelle in which aerobic cellular respiration occurs
mRNA Transcript: the mRNA sequence after modifications
Missense mutation: a mutation that results in the single substitution of one amino acid in the resulting polypeptide
Mutagenic agents: agents that can cause a mutation
Mutations: changes in the DNA sequence that are inherited
Mutualism: a symbiotic relationship in which both organisms benefit; as neither is harmed, it is categorized as a good relationship
Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide: NAD+ coenzyme used to shuttle electrons to the first component of the electron transport chain in the mitochondrial inner membrane
Nitrogenous base: an alkaline, cyclic molecule containing nitrogen
Nonsense mutation: a mutation that converts a codon for amino acid into a termination codon
Nucleotide: the repeating unit of nucleic acids; composed of a sugar group, a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base
Okazaki fragments: short DNA fragments that are generated during the synthesis of the lagging strand in DNA replication
Operator: regulatory sequences of DNA to which a repressor protein binds
Operon: a cluster of genes under the control of one promoter and one operator in prokaryotic
cells; acts as a simple regulatory loop
Origin of replication: the DNA sequence where replication begins
Oxidation: a chemical reaction in which an atom loses one or more electrons
Oxidizing agent: the substance that gains an electron in a redox reaction; the substance that causes the oxidized atom to become oxidized
P (peptide) site: site in the ribosome where peptide bonds are formed between adjoining amino
acids on a growing polypeptide chain
Parasitism: a symbiotic relationship in which one organism (the parasite) benefits at the expense of another organism (the host)
Phosphate group: group of four oxygen atoms surrounding a central phosphorus atom found in the backbone of DNA
Photolysis: separation of molecules by the action of photons or light
Photon: a particle of light
Photosynthesis: the process by which plants fix carbon and use energy from the sun to produce sugars
Photosystem: a biochemical mechanism in plants that absorbs light energy in the chloroplast for photosynthesis
Plasmids: a double-stranded, circular sequence of DNA that can replicate on it’s own in a host cell
Point mutations: mutation at a specific base pair in the genome
Poly-A tail: string of 200-300 adenine base pairs at the end of mRNA transcript. This is the
responsibility of the enzyme, poly-A polymerase
Population density: the number of individuals of the same species that occur per unit area or volume
Population dispersion: the general pattern in which individuals are distributed through a specified area
Population dynamics: changes in population characteristics determined by natality, mortality, immigration, and emigration
Population size: the number of individuals of a specific species occupying a given area/volume at a given time
Potential energy: energy stored by virtue of an object’s position within an attractive or repulsive force field
Potential energy diagram: a diagram showing the changes in potential energy that take place during a chemical reaction
Predation: an ecological interaction in which a predator (a member of one species) catches, kills, and consumes prey (usually a member of another species)
Primary transcript: the mRNA sequence before it has had modifications made to it
Primer: in DNA replication, a short segment of RNA that is complementary to a part of the 3’ to 5’ DNA template strand and serves as a starting point for addition of nucleotides
Prokaryotic cells: cells possessing no intracellular membrane-bound organelles or nucleus
Promoter: Sequence of DNA that binds RNA polymerase adjacent to the start of a gene
Proteins: Complex molecules composed of one or more polypeptide chains made of amino acids. They are folded into specific 3D shapes that determine protein function
Quadrat: a sampling frame used for estimating population size; frames can be real or virtual
Random dispersion: the pattern in which individuals are spread throughout a habitat in an unpredictable and patternless manner
Reading frame: one of three possible phases in which to read the bases of a gene in groups of three
Redox: reaction a chemical reaction involving the transfer of one or more electrons from one atom to another; a reaction in which oxidation and reduction occur
Recombinant DNA: a DNA sequence synthesized in the laboratory that doesn’t occur naturally – DNA sequences can come from many different sources
Reducing agent: the substance that loses an electron in a redox reaction; the substance that causes the reduced atom to become reduced
Reduction: a chemical reaction in which an atom gains one or more electrons
Release factor: a protein involved in the release of a finished polypeptide chain from the ribosome
Restriction enzyme: an enzyme that cuts a strand of DNA at a specific nucleotide sequence (recognition sites)
Repressor protein: regulatory molecules that bind to an operator site and prevemt the transcription of an operon
ribosomal RNA (rRNA): a form of RNA that binds with ribosomal protein to form ribosomes
RNA polymerase: an enzyme that transcribes DNA into complementary mRNA
Semi-conservative replication: the mechanism of DNA replication in which each newly synthesized DNA molecule is composed of one strand from the original DNA molecule and one new strand
Signal molecule: a molecule that activates an activator protein or represses a repressor protein
Silent mutation: a mutation that does not result in a change in the amino acid coded for and, therefore, does not cause any phenotypic change
Species: organisms that resemble one another in appearance, behaviour, chemistry, and genetic makeup, and that interbreed, or have the ability to interbreed, with each other under natural conditions to produce fertile offspring
Spliceosomes: particles made out of RNA that cut introns and join the remaining coding regions
together
Spontaneous mutations: mutations occurring without chemical change of radiation but as a
result of errors made in DNA replication
Start codon: a specific codon (AUG--methionine) that signals to the ribosome that translations
will start at that point
Stop codons: specific codons that signal to the ribosome the end of translation
Substitution: the replacement of one base in a DNA sequence by another base
Substrate: the reactant that an enzyme acts on when it catalyzes a chemical reaction
Symbiosis: various interactions in which two species maintain a close, usually physical, association; includes parasitism, mutualism, and commensalism
Telomere: a repetitive section of DNA, near each end of a chromosome; the presence of this sequence helps to protect from loss of important genetic information during replication of the linear DNA in eukaryotic cells
Template strand: the strand of DNA that RNA polymerase uses as a guide to build complementary mRNA
Terminator sequence: sequence of bases that signal RNA polymerase to stop transcribing
Thylakoid: folded membranes in the chloroplast in which the light reactions take place
Transcription factors: proteins that switch on genes by binding to DNA and helping the RNA polymerase to bind
Transcription: the process in which DNA is used as a template to produce complementary mRNA molecules
transfer RNA (tRNA): a form of RNA that delivers amino acids to the ribosomes during
translation
Translation: the process in which ribosomes assemble amino acids in a specific sequence to make a specific polypeptide coded by messenger RNA (mRNA)
Translocation: the transfer of a fragement of DNA from one site in the genome to another location
Transposable elements: segments of DNA that are replicated as a unit from one location to another on chromosomal DNA
Trp operon: a cluster of genes in a prokaryotic cell under the control of one promoter and one operator; the genes govern the synthesis of the necessary enzymes required to synthesize the
amino acid tryptophan
Uniform dispersion: the pattern in which individuals are equally spaced throughout a habitat
Vectors: a DNA molecule used to transfer genetic information from one cell to another
Viral Vectors: non-infectious viral DNA or RNA that contains viral promoters, allowing for translation to occur in replication
Work: the transfer of energy from one body or place to another
Yeast: tiny single-celled fungi that have been used by humans for centuries in the preparation of food and drink
Zero population growth: the condition in which the number of individuals added to a population from births and immigration equals the number of individuals removed from a population by deaths and emigration, resulting in a constant population size
A (acceptor) site: site in the ribosome where tRNA brings in an amino acid
Activation energy: the difference between the energy level of the transition state and the potential energy of reacting molecules
Active site: the location where the substrate binds to an enzyme
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP): a nucleotide derivative that acts as the primary energy-transferring molecule in living organisms
Allosteric inhibitor: a substance that binds to an allosteric site on an enzyme and stabilizes the inactive form of the enzyme
Allosteric sites: receptor sites, some distance from the active site of certain enzymes, that bind substances that may inhibit or stimulate an enzyme’s activity
Amino acid: The monomer subunit of a polypeptide chain. It is composed of a carboxylic acid, an amino group and a side group that differentiates it from other amino acids.
Aminoacyl-tRNA: a tRNA molecule with its corresponding amino acid attached to its acceptor site at the 3’
end
Anabolic reactions: reactions that produce large molecules from smaller subunit
Anaerobe: an organisms that does not require oxygen as its final electron acceptor
Anaerobic respiration: a process by which organisms produce energy in the absence of oxygen
Anticodon: group of three complementary bases on tRNA that recognizes and pairs with a codon on the mRNA
Antiparallel: the directionality of the two strands in a DNA molecule; the strands run in opposite directions, with each end of a DNA molecule containing the 3’ end of one strand and the 5’(5 prime) end of the other strand
β- galactosidase: the enzyme responsible for the breakdown of lactose into its component sugars, glucose and galactose
Calvin cycle: a light dependent set of reactions used by photosynthetic organisms to fix CO2 and make sugars
Carrying capacity: the maximum number of organisms that can be sustained by available resources over a given period of time
Chargaff’s rule: in DNA, the percent composition of adenine is the same as thymine, and the percent composition of cytosine is the same as guanine
Chemiosmosis: a process for synthesizing ATP using the energy of an electrochemical gradient and the ATP synthase enzyme
Chloroplast: a plastid that contains chlorophyll and in which photosynthesis takes place
Chlorophyll: a green pigment found in plants that absorbs light
Clumped dispersion: the pattern in which individuals in a population are more concentrated in certain parts of a habitat
Coding strand: strand that is not used for transcription and is identical to mRNA. It uses Uracil
instead of Thymine
Codon: a sequence of 3 bases in DNA or complementary mRNA that serves as a code for a particular amino acid
Coenzymes: organic nonprotein cofactors that are needed for some enzymes to function
Commensalism: a symbiotic relationship in which one organism benefits and the other organism is unaffected
Community: all populations in a given ecosystem at a given time
Complementary base pairing: in DNA, the interaction of bases of nucleotides on opposite strands through the formation of hydrogen bonds
Corepressor: a molecule (usually the product of an operon) that binds to a repressor to activate it
Cristae: the folds of the inner mitochondrial membrane
Dark reactions: see Calvin Cycle
Deletion: the elimination of a base pair or group of base pairs from a DNA sequence
Demographic transition model: a four-stage model that describes the relationship between economic development and changes in population patterns
Demography: the study of the growth rate, age structure, and other characteristics of human populations
Deoxyribose sugar: sugar molecule containing five carbons that has lost the - OH (hydroxyl group) on its 2’ (2 prime) carbon
DNA digest: cutting of the DNA strand
DNA ligase: an enzyme that catalyses the joining of Okazaki fragments
DNA polymerase I: an enzyme that removes RNA primer and fills gaps between Okazaki fragments on the lagging strand with DNA nucleotides; proofreads newly synthesized DNA
DNA polymerase II: an enzyme that proofreads newly synthesized DNA
DNA polymerase III: an enzyme that adds nucleotides to the 3’ (3 prime) end of a growing polynucleotide strand
DNA replication: the process of producing two identical DNA molecules from an original, parent DNA molecule
Ecological niche: an organism’s biological characteristics, including use of and interaction with abiotic and biotic resources in its environment
Electrochemical gradient: a concentration gradient created by pumping ions into a space surrounded by a membrane that is impermeable to the ions
Electron transport chain: a series of membrane- associated protein complexes and cytochromes that transfer energy to an electrochemical gradient by pumping H+ ions into an intermembrane space
Endergonic reaction: a chemical reaction in which the energy of the products is more than the energy of the reactants; chemists call it an endothermic reaction
Energy: the ability to do work
Entropy: a measure of the randomness or disorder in a collection of objects or energy; symbolized by S
Enzyme–substrate complex: an enzyme with its substrate attached to the active site
Ethanol fermentation: a form of fermentation occurring in yeast in which NADH passes its hydrogen atoms to acetaldehyde, generating carbon dioxide, ethanol, and NAD+
Eukaryotic cells: cells possessing a cell nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles
Exergonic reaction: a chemical reaction in which the energy of the products is less than the energy of the reactants; chemists call it an exothermic reaction
Exons: segments of DNA that code for part of a specific protein
Exponential growth: a pattern of population growth where organisms reproduce continuously at a constant rate
Fermentation: a process in which the hydrogen atoms of NADH are transferred to organic compounds other than an electron transport chain
Frameshift mutation: a mutation that causes the reading frame of codons to change, usually resulting in dfferent amino acids being incorporated into the polypeptide
Gene regulation: the turning on or off of specific genes depending on the requirements of an organism
Genes: a sequence of nucleotides in DNA that performs a specific function such as coding for a particular protein
Geometric growth: a pattern of population growth where organisms reproduce at fixed intervals at a constant rate
Glycosyl bond: a bond between a sugar and another organic molecule by way of an intervening nitrogen or oxygen atom
Habitat: the place where an organism or species normally lives
Helicase: a group of enzymes that aid in the unwinding of DNA
Housekeeping genes: genes that are switched on all the time because they are needed for life
functions vital to an organism
Hydrolysis reaction: a catabolic reaction in which a water molecule is used to break a covalent bond holding subunits together
Induced mutations: mutations caused by a chemical agent or radiation
Inducer: a molecule that binds to a repressor protein and causes a change in conformation, resulting in the repressor protein falling off the operator
Insertion: the placement of an extra nucleotide in a DNA sequence
Intermembrance space: the fluid-filled space between the inner and outer mitochondrial membranes
Introns: non coding regions of a gene
Inversion: the reversal of a segment of DNA within a chromosome
Kinetic energy: energy possessed by moving objects
Krebs Cycle: a cyclic series of reactions that transfers energy from organic molecules to ATP, NADH, and FADH2 and removes carbon atoms as carbon dioxide
Lac operon: a cluster of genes under the control of one promoter and one operator; the genes
collectively code for the enzymes and proteins required for a bacterial cell to use lactose as a
nutrient
Lacl protein: a repressor protein that binds to the lac operon operator; preventing RNA polymerase from transcribing the lac operon genes
Lactate (lactic acid) fermentation: a form of fermentation occurring in animal cells in which NADH transfers its hydrogen atoms to pyruvate, regenerating NAD+ and lactate
Lactose: a disaccharide that consists of the sugars glucose and galactose messenger RNA (mRNA): The end product of transcription of a gene. mRNA then gets translated into a protein by the ribosomes
Light Reactions: the first stage of photosynthesis in which energy from light is used to make ATP
Logistic growth: a model of population growth describing growth that levels off as the size of the population approaches its carrying capacity
Mark–recapture method: sampling technique for estimating population size and density by comparing the proportion of marked and unmarked animals captured in a given area; sometimes called capture–recapture
Matrix: the fluid that fills the interior space of the mitochondrion
Metabolism: the sum of all anabolic and catabolic processes in a cell or organism
Mismatch repair: a mechanism for repairing errors made during DNA replication, whereby a group of proteins recognize mispaired nucleotide on the newly synthesized strand and replace it with a correctly paired nucleotide
Mitochondria: eukaryotic cell organelle in which aerobic cellular respiration occurs
mRNA Transcript: the mRNA sequence after modifications
Missense mutation: a mutation that results in the single substitution of one amino acid in the resulting polypeptide
Mutagenic agents: agents that can cause a mutation
Mutations: changes in the DNA sequence that are inherited
Mutualism: a symbiotic relationship in which both organisms benefit; as neither is harmed, it is categorized as a good relationship
Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide: NAD+ coenzyme used to shuttle electrons to the first component of the electron transport chain in the mitochondrial inner membrane
Nitrogenous base: an alkaline, cyclic molecule containing nitrogen
Nonsense mutation: a mutation that converts a codon for amino acid into a termination codon
Nucleotide: the repeating unit of nucleic acids; composed of a sugar group, a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base
Okazaki fragments: short DNA fragments that are generated during the synthesis of the lagging strand in DNA replication
Operator: regulatory sequences of DNA to which a repressor protein binds
Operon: a cluster of genes under the control of one promoter and one operator in prokaryotic
cells; acts as a simple regulatory loop
Origin of replication: the DNA sequence where replication begins
Oxidation: a chemical reaction in which an atom loses one or more electrons
Oxidizing agent: the substance that gains an electron in a redox reaction; the substance that causes the oxidized atom to become oxidized
P (peptide) site: site in the ribosome where peptide bonds are formed between adjoining amino
acids on a growing polypeptide chain
Parasitism: a symbiotic relationship in which one organism (the parasite) benefits at the expense of another organism (the host)
Phosphate group: group of four oxygen atoms surrounding a central phosphorus atom found in the backbone of DNA
Photolysis: separation of molecules by the action of photons or light
Photon: a particle of light
Photosynthesis: the process by which plants fix carbon and use energy from the sun to produce sugars
Photosystem: a biochemical mechanism in plants that absorbs light energy in the chloroplast for photosynthesis
Plasmids: a double-stranded, circular sequence of DNA that can replicate on it’s own in a host cell
Point mutations: mutation at a specific base pair in the genome
Poly-A tail: string of 200-300 adenine base pairs at the end of mRNA transcript. This is the
responsibility of the enzyme, poly-A polymerase
Population density: the number of individuals of the same species that occur per unit area or volume
Population dispersion: the general pattern in which individuals are distributed through a specified area
Population dynamics: changes in population characteristics determined by natality, mortality, immigration, and emigration
Population size: the number of individuals of a specific species occupying a given area/volume at a given time
Potential energy: energy stored by virtue of an object’s position within an attractive or repulsive force field
Potential energy diagram: a diagram showing the changes in potential energy that take place during a chemical reaction
Predation: an ecological interaction in which a predator (a member of one species) catches, kills, and consumes prey (usually a member of another species)
Primary transcript: the mRNA sequence before it has had modifications made to it
Primer: in DNA replication, a short segment of RNA that is complementary to a part of the 3’ to 5’ DNA template strand and serves as a starting point for addition of nucleotides
Prokaryotic cells: cells possessing no intracellular membrane-bound organelles or nucleus
Promoter: Sequence of DNA that binds RNA polymerase adjacent to the start of a gene
Proteins: Complex molecules composed of one or more polypeptide chains made of amino acids. They are folded into specific 3D shapes that determine protein function
Quadrat: a sampling frame used for estimating population size; frames can be real or virtual
Random dispersion: the pattern in which individuals are spread throughout a habitat in an unpredictable and patternless manner
Reading frame: one of three possible phases in which to read the bases of a gene in groups of three
Redox: reaction a chemical reaction involving the transfer of one or more electrons from one atom to another; a reaction in which oxidation and reduction occur
Recombinant DNA: a DNA sequence synthesized in the laboratory that doesn’t occur naturally – DNA sequences can come from many different sources
Reducing agent: the substance that loses an electron in a redox reaction; the substance that causes the reduced atom to become reduced
Reduction: a chemical reaction in which an atom gains one or more electrons
Release factor: a protein involved in the release of a finished polypeptide chain from the ribosome
Restriction enzyme: an enzyme that cuts a strand of DNA at a specific nucleotide sequence (recognition sites)
Repressor protein: regulatory molecules that bind to an operator site and prevemt the transcription of an operon
ribosomal RNA (rRNA): a form of RNA that binds with ribosomal protein to form ribosomes
RNA polymerase: an enzyme that transcribes DNA into complementary mRNA
Semi-conservative replication: the mechanism of DNA replication in which each newly synthesized DNA molecule is composed of one strand from the original DNA molecule and one new strand
Signal molecule: a molecule that activates an activator protein or represses a repressor protein
Silent mutation: a mutation that does not result in a change in the amino acid coded for and, therefore, does not cause any phenotypic change
Species: organisms that resemble one another in appearance, behaviour, chemistry, and genetic makeup, and that interbreed, or have the ability to interbreed, with each other under natural conditions to produce fertile offspring
Spliceosomes: particles made out of RNA that cut introns and join the remaining coding regions
together
Spontaneous mutations: mutations occurring without chemical change of radiation but as a
result of errors made in DNA replication
Start codon: a specific codon (AUG--methionine) that signals to the ribosome that translations
will start at that point
Stop codons: specific codons that signal to the ribosome the end of translation
Substitution: the replacement of one base in a DNA sequence by another base
Substrate: the reactant that an enzyme acts on when it catalyzes a chemical reaction
Symbiosis: various interactions in which two species maintain a close, usually physical, association; includes parasitism, mutualism, and commensalism
Telomere: a repetitive section of DNA, near each end of a chromosome; the presence of this sequence helps to protect from loss of important genetic information during replication of the linear DNA in eukaryotic cells
Template strand: the strand of DNA that RNA polymerase uses as a guide to build complementary mRNA
Terminator sequence: sequence of bases that signal RNA polymerase to stop transcribing
Thylakoid: folded membranes in the chloroplast in which the light reactions take place
Transcription factors: proteins that switch on genes by binding to DNA and helping the RNA polymerase to bind
Transcription: the process in which DNA is used as a template to produce complementary mRNA molecules
transfer RNA (tRNA): a form of RNA that delivers amino acids to the ribosomes during
translation
Translation: the process in which ribosomes assemble amino acids in a specific sequence to make a specific polypeptide coded by messenger RNA (mRNA)
Translocation: the transfer of a fragement of DNA from one site in the genome to another location
Transposable elements: segments of DNA that are replicated as a unit from one location to another on chromosomal DNA
Trp operon: a cluster of genes in a prokaryotic cell under the control of one promoter and one operator; the genes govern the synthesis of the necessary enzymes required to synthesize the
amino acid tryptophan
Uniform dispersion: the pattern in which individuals are equally spaced throughout a habitat
Vectors: a DNA molecule used to transfer genetic information from one cell to another
Viral Vectors: non-infectious viral DNA or RNA that contains viral promoters, allowing for translation to occur in replication
Work: the transfer of energy from one body or place to another
Yeast: tiny single-celled fungi that have been used by humans for centuries in the preparation of food and drink
Zero population growth: the condition in which the number of individuals added to a population from births and immigration equals the number of individuals removed from a population by deaths and emigration, resulting in a constant population size